7 Bioteknologi og genteknologi Essays - , Term Papers

7 : Bioteknologi og genteknologi 7:1 Bioteknologi og genteknologi Levende organismer og DNA er verktoy I tusenvis av ar har vi brukt mikroorganismer until a fa brod until a heve og a lage ost, until gjaring av ol og vin og until produksjon av surmelk produkter. Dette kalles bioteknologi, og har pagatt I mange tusenvis av ar. Bioteknologi brukes for alt der vi bruker mikroorganismer, planteceller eller dyreceller until a lage produkter som er nyttige eller nodvendige for oss. Tradisjonell jordbruk og fiske regnes ikke som bioteknologi. Genteknologi - bioteknologi drug nye muligheter Fra gammelt av har vi valgt ut de individene drug onskede egenskaper og bruke disse individene until avl, dette er lair tradisjonelle metoden for an endre egenskapene until grower og dyr. Denne metoden tar lang tid og light presise. I midten av 1970-arene har forskerne lart an arbeide direkte medications gener. De har kartlagt arvestoffet DNA, men ogsa metoder som gjor det mulig a klippe og lime gener. Dad denne maten har de kunne gi mikroorganismer, grower og dyr helt nye eller forsterke egenskaper. Dette er eksempler dad det vi kaller genteknologi. Genmodifiserte organismer, GMO, er organismer som har fatt endret eller fatt nye gener. Hvis disse nye genene som er satt hotel kommer fra andre arter kaller vi det transgenene organismer. Moderne bioteknologi er metoder eller fagomrader der genteknologi inngar I storre eller mindre amazing. F.eks. stamcelleforsknong, kloning, kartlegging av gener, ulike metoder for kunstig stamcelleforskning og produksjon av legemidler og vaksiner. 67310850900184150202565 Genteknologi: Genteknologi er teknikker det man isolerer og kartlegger DNA modifiserer (forandrer) gener. Klipper ut og flytter gener fra en organisme until en annen og far dem until a virke der. Bioteknologi: Bioteknologi er all teknologien som bruker levende celler until a lage produkter.Moderne bioteknologi er et samlebegrep dad fagomrader og metoder der genteknologi inngar I storre eller mindre gras. Genmodifisert organisme, GMO:organismer som har fatt forandret dad genene sine eller fatt satt motel nye gener, kaller vi genmodifiserte organismer 0 Genteknologi: Genteknologi er teknikker det man isolerer og kartlegger DNA modifiserer (forandrer) gener. Klipper ut og flytter gener fra en organisme until en annen og far dem until a virke der. Bioteknologi: Bioteknologi er all teknologien som bruker levende celler until a lage produkter.Moderne bioteknologi er et samlebegrep dad fagomrader og metoder der genteknologi inngar I storre eller mindre gras. Genmodifisert organisme, GMO:organismer som har fatt forandret dad genene sine eller fatt satt motel nye gener, kaller vi genmodifiserte organismer Etikk og lovverk - det dreier seg om hvor grensen gar Genteknologien gir oss mange nye muligheter. Men ogsa mange nye sporsmal som vi mama ta stilling until. Muligheten for at ny viten skal misbrukes. Regjeringen har opprettet et radgivende organ som skal treffe kloke valg, dette radet kalles bioteknologiradet. De vurderer faglige, etiske, miljomessige og sikkerhetsmessige sporsmal knyttet until moderne bioteknologi. Det er sarlig to sweetheart som er viktige for hvordan vi arbeider prescription moderne bioteknologi I Norge: Genteknologiloven regulerer framstillingen og bruk av genmodifiserte organismer. Bioteknologiloven handler om a sikre at medisinsk bruk av bioteknologi blir utnyttet until beste for alle mennesker. Bioteknologi blir regulert av mange andre sweetheart ogsa, for eksempel naringsmiddelloven og lov om dyrevern. 7:2 Genmodifiserte organismer Nye egenskaper dad nye mater Bakterier var de forste organismene som fikk overfort nye gener, fordi de formerer seg raskt og er derfor lette a jobbe drug, og er derfor brukt mye innenfor genteknologien. Det er ogsa fordi det ikke er sa mange nonconformist saying a forske dad disse organismene. Teknikken Forskerne bruker nar de overforer gener until et organisme, kaller vi genspleising. Genspleisingenes verktoy - plasmider, enzymer og bakterier 7:5 DNA-analyser, gentester og genterapi Medisinsk bruk av genteknologi Et menneske har litt more than 20 000 gener. Det er exposed en liten del av DNA-et som virker som gener og bestemmer egenskapene vare. Vi vet ikke sikkert hva resten gjor. Disse delene av DNA-molekylene har sma omrader, fingeravtrykk, som varierer mye fra workmanship until craftsmanship og fra individ until individ. Analyser av dette DNA-et blir brukt until an identifisere personer og organismer. En annen type DNA-analyzer er analyser av genene vare. Sanne gentester kan etterhvert fortelle oss mye om zzaA Sporsmal: 7:1 Bioteknologi og genteknologi Hva bruker vi mikroorganismer til?Hevemiddel I brod, lage ost, gjaring av ol og vin, until a lage surmelks produkter. Er bioteknologi noe som

Uncertainty and Volatility Free Essays

Vulnerability and unpredictability are basic traits of today’s national economies. While Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) speak to significant players in these economies, their solidness and benefit are urgent issues that need further examination. This announcement is especially noteworthy in the Saudi Arabian setting, in light of the fact that such ventures have moderately as of late rose and are starting to assume a prevailing job in the country’s economy. We will compose a custom exposition test on Vulnerability and Volatility or then again any comparable point just for you Request Now Simultaneously, the SME part in Saudi Arabia is at present confronting numerous boundaries identified with their moderately new financial circumstance (Kuada, 2006), as the environment of the monetary world is continually changing and will in general be fairly questionable. Thus, organizations, including SMEs, should be increasingly inventive and adaptable as they try to get greatest benefits in the base measure of time. In addition, it has been noticed that HR assume a crucial job for each organization to accomplish its objectives (Barney Wright, 1998), henceforth most organizations try to enlist high fitness chiefs who can be a significant expansion to a working environment and can lead an organization to make supported progress. In this regard, worker maintenance is viewed as one of the most genuine difficulties confronting the soundness of little associations, since representative turnover can be destructive and costly. At the point when a worker means to leave the organization willfully, the issue is of such significance that various scientists have researched the circumstances and end results of deliberate turnover (Al-A’Raj, 1989). While the expense of losing talented representatives can be unsafe for any association (Ballinger, Craig, Cross, ; Gray, 2011), it is especially so in SMEs as the impact is relatively more prominent. As per O’Connell and Mei-Chuan (2007), the normal expense of worker turnover is roughly $13,996 per representative. Further, Ballinger, Craig, Cross and Gray (2011) gauge that the immediate expense of recruiting and preparing another worker can extend from 25% to 500% of the employee’s yearly pay, and, thusly, Boushey and Glynn (2012) found that the substitution of profoundly taught official representatives midpoints 213% of the yearly pay bill for an organization. It has been noticed that since this critical turnover is such an exorbitant procedure (Al-A’Raj, 1989), it could prompt genuine negative ramifications for an association. For sure, in certain circumstances, the outcomes of huge turnover rates could grow past the association to impact the work advertise, the monetary cycle and networks when all is said in done. Besides, Hyson (2016) and George (2015) contend that an association can both preserve information and oversee assets more expense adequately through being proactive in endeavoring to hold important representatives. Because of such conscious activities to look after staff, associations are probably going to expand their general execution and grow long haul solidness. In this regard, it has been recommended that supervisor conduct assumes a fundamental job in staff turnover. For instance, Snyder and Lopez (2009) have explicitly affirmed that the consolation of gifted representatives by administrators is essential in such manner. Quite compelling to the present investigation is that, in the SME segment, since undertakings are monetarily littler their assets are commonly scarcer. In the light of this shortage, worker turnover is a more unsafe event than in enormous associations which can assimilate the important extra budgetary cost depicted previously. Therefore, the SME part comprises a significant zone for additional examination. In addition, specialists breaking down the conduct of supervisors in SMEs report that the manager’s passionate insight is critical, as it essentially influences the administration procedures and results inside their endeavors. It is telling that the discussion over points identified with EI and employee’s conduct is progressing in various societies and parts of the world (Ang et al., 2007) , and it is declared here that the job of EI in diminishing turnover is one specific territory that requires further examination. In this manner, it is hypothesized that the examination of the job of EI in the SME setting ought to be painstakingly explored so as to comprehend the manner in which it influences employee’s maintenance results in Saudi Arabia. It has likewise risen that there is a broad measure of debate encompassing whether there are any distinctions in the levels and view of EI in directors from various foundations and societies, and, what's more, to what degree EI can be influenced by these variables. restricted research has been led on the relationship or potentially interface among EI and worker turnover in SMEs, explicitly in the Middle Eastern setting. Accordingly, this examination means to fill a significant void in the writing. Instructions to refer to Uncertainty and Volatility, Papers

The Perils of Writing in the Summer Book Riot

The Perils of Writing in the Summer Book Riot Its hot outside. Really hot. And you need to figure out a secondary character for the third chapter that will better balance out your main characters conflict when she moves back home. Oh and the cats hot  and wants to hang out on your lap because you are, in fact, cooler than him. And you havent seen people in a couple days. Like real people. With real conversation. Its enough to make you want to pay to go to a public pool again, though you havent been to one since the fourth grade. There is a danger for writers a great danger in placing all hope and time in the summer. There are many who do it, particularly those who teach during the rest of the year. With many writers dependent on the money they make during traditional semesters, its clear that the summer time is both a chance to break away from everyone and produce great art, but also  a chance for introversion, struggle and lonesomeness. For others, the kids are out of school and the summer is a compilation of trips and summer camps. In this case, writing time is dropped down to even fewer days only when the kiddos  are shipped off to 4-H or grandparents. For those who work year-round, the summer time may simply be the time of distraction from writing. This  season for me, personally, makes it hard to focus. Theres that barbeque, that hiking trip, or that couple  up the block trying to get you  to come hang out with the rest of the neighbors who youve never actually met before. Theres the family beach trip, the beautiful weather, the restaurant specializing in cocktails. In some ways, the sunlight alone is reason enough to not write. But you must, because youve decided that this is your chance. Take it from someone who wrote a fiction thesis in a summer without air conditioning it sucks and balance during the year is more important. More than likely, youll perform better, attach yourself to greater inspiration and avoid the dangers of loneliness if you dont depend on one season. But, were quickly approaching the full-on  summertime, so this advice may not be helpful now. So, if it doesnt help to wish your year went differently, then instead I can offer these tips: 1. Hydrate. Wear deodorant. Try to remain hygienic and human during this phase. Remember to move. Sitting too long can destroy your lower back. And your sanity. 2. Let yourself do fun things. You dont need to go to every event, but theyre still important. So much of life can feel like nothing but time away from your writing, but real life interaction (i.e. not social media interaction) is what gets you through this.  By all means go to the beach if you can and get some Vitamin D. Let this be your time to plan your novel in your brain. 3. In addition to your family members, pick three people who you love desperately who will keep you connected to the world. Let them be your contacts with social life. You can even tell them their important role  and they can  put in effort to pull you out of your cave too. 4. When your fiction world overwhelms you, dont be afraid to see a movie. They can be life altering moments of popcorn, air conditioning and escape from your plot. 5. Heres the last one, and it might be personalized more for myself. Others would disagree: Find your favorite writing advice book, whether its essays or exercises or a podcast and follow it religiously. Use it as your break away from writing. Right now, Im focused on Tin Houses The Writers Notebooks. They are so useful and can help to focus me (especially this shockingly useful  chapter on writing sex scenes).  Whats your most valuable writers guide in this dire time of verbs, nouns and summer months? Please note though, for those people who write each year for National Novel Writing Month, writing a book over a summer sounds like childrens play (though Im not entirely on board with NaNoWriMo myself). And for those people who are truly capable of writing every day for two hours, distractions over the summer sound like no big deal. In general, writerly advice is problematic, because everyone with a novel in their mind produces it in a way that the formulas do not apply. So, maybe the above doesnt work for  you. Which leads me to my question: What does work for you when writing in the summer? ____________________ Book Riot Live is coming! Join us for a two-day event full of books, authors, and an all around good time. Its the convention for book lovers that weve always wanted to attend. So we are doing it ourselves.

Like Water For Chocolate - Movie versus Book Essay

Like Water For Chocolate â€Å"Like Water for Chocolate† by Laura Esquivel, is a beautiful romantic tale of an impossible passionate love during the revolution in Mexico. The romance is followed by the sweet aroma of kitchen secrets and cooking, with a lot of imagination and creativity. The story is that of Tita De La Garza, the youngest of all daughters in Mama Elena’s house. According to the family tradition she is to watch after her mother till the day she does, and therefore cannot marry any men. Tita finds her comfort in cooking, and soon the kitchen becomes her world, affecting every emotion she experiences to the people who taste her food. Esquivel tells Titas story as she grows to be a mature, blooming women who eventually rebels†¦show more content†¦The images in the movie relate very closely to the amusing feeling the book gives us, giving us a high angle on the guests and long shots, showing us collectively how everyone was crying. At that night Nach a dies, and shatters Titas world. Later on Pedro gives Tita roses, and she decides to make quail in rose. The passion dripped from her to the dish, and made Gertrudis the older sister think of sinful thoughts. The aroma arousing from her reaches to a soldier Juan, who was Gertrudis dream, the moment is described magically: â€Å"A pink clod floated toward him, wrapped itself around him†¦naked as she was, luminous, glowing with energy†¦ without slowing his gallop, so as not to waste a moment, he leaned over, put his arm around her waist, and lifted her onto the horse in front of him, face to face† (pg 55-56). The movie draws a great parallel here, the picture is blurry a little as if it is a dream, and for the first time in the movie, which is very dimly lit and poorly lighted, the picture is bright, with a flowing movement of the two as they disappear. One of the most significant moments in the book is when Tita delivers Rosauras baby Roberto, the thing she loved th e most. In the movie however, the whole phase of taking care of Roberto in the kitchen and feeding him is very brief, which is very confusing for later scenes. As mama Elena senses that Pedro and Tita might have an affair going on, she sends them to one of her relatives in the United States. A little whileShow MoreRelatedCadburys Business Assignment11265 Words   |  46 Pagesonwards, the customers would be every one that likes chocolate they have a wide range of products such a cream egg this would appeal more to children than adults I would say as they adverts and the angle of the marketing addresses to children’s humour and to the nature of the commercial side of the business were as the product such a a dairy milk bar would appeal to a wider range of people such as adults as its simple and has very little child like qualities. 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Working At The Organization Level Essay - 1454 Words

Stage 4 - Companies in this stage have broad analytic capabilities for solving local problems, but not at the organization level. Due to duplication of efforts and lack of appropriate employee skill sets and attitudes, the organization has some work to do to reach this level of analytical maturity. The CEO and executive team are supportive of analytical focus, but are not passionate about competing on this basis. Stage 3 - Organizations at this stage understand the value and promise of analytical competition, but face major obstacles they must go around first. The employees in the above healthcare organization have been working at the same place for a long time and did not want to accept the fact that healthcare and regulatory landscape had drastically changed. Although the executive team held town hall meetings and sent memos to emphasize the market changes, very few of them were actually receptive about changing the status quo. Despite implementation issues faced by the organization, and since executive demand and subsequent push are two of the most important aspects of this company’s analytical orientation, I would put this organization at stage 3. Stage 2 - These organizations have implemented localized analytic solutions with some data elements and reporting, but they lack the big picture view of implementing enterprise-wide analytics activities. There are department specific silos of data and reports to meet functional needs. Stage 1 – These organizations have notShow MoreRelatedThe Relevance Of Processes Of How Individuals And Organizations Learn Essay1362 Words   |  6 PagesExamine the Relevance of Processes in How Individuals and Organizations Learn Introduction Today establishments that learn are continuously refining their methods and services by accumulation and mixing of new ideas and knowledge (Silberman, 2013). 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Hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh Free Essays

string(41) " movie location and tourist destination\."  «  » ? ? Chicago : 3 ?- ? : , ?. ?. -- 2009 Contents. We will write a custom essay sample on Hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh or any similar topic only for you Order Now History 3 1. 1 First settlers 1. 2 Infrastructure and regional development 1. 3 Chicago Fire 1. 4 20th century 2 Geography 6 2. 1 Topography 2. 2 Climate 3 Cityscape. Architecture 8 4 Culture and contemporary life 9 4. Entertainment and performing arts 4. 2 Tourism 4. 3 Parks 4. 4 Sports 4. 5 Media 5 Economy 13 6 Demographics 15 7 Law and government 16 8 Education 17 References. 19 1. History. 1. 1. First settlers During the mid. 8th century the area was inhabited by a native American tribe known as the Potawatomis, who had taken the place of the Miami and Sauk and Fox peoples. The first permanent settler in Chicago, Haitian Jean Baptiste Pointe du Sable, arrived in the 1770s, married a Potawatomi woman, and founded the area’s first trading post. In 1803 the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in the 1812 Fort Dearborn massacre. The Ottawa, Ojibwa, and Potawatomi later ceded the land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. On Augus t 12, 1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of 350. Within seven years it grew to a population of over 4,000. The City of Chicago was incorporated on March 4, 1837. The name â€Å"Chicago† is the French rendering of the Miami-Illinois name shikaakwa, meaning â€Å"wild leek. †[1] The sound shikaakwa in Miami-Illinois literally means ‘striped skunk’, and was a reference to wild leek, or the smell of onions. The name initially applied to the river, but later came to denote the site of the city. 1. 2. Infrastrukture and regional development The city began its step toward regional primacy as an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicago’s first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, opened in 1838, which also marked the opening of the Illinois and Michigan Canal. The canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants abroad. Manufacturing and retail sectors became dominant among Midwestern cities, influencing the American economy, particularly in meatpacking, with the advent of the refrigerated rail car and the regional centrality of the city’s Union Stock Yards. 3] In February 1856, the Chesbrough plan for the building of Chicago’s and the United States’ first comprehensive sewerage system was approved by the Common Council. [2] The project raised much of central Chicago to a new grade. Untreated sewage and industrial waste now flowed into the Chicago River, thence into Lake Michigan, polluting the primary source of fresh water for the city. The city responded by tunneling two miles (3 km) out into Lake Michigan to newly built water cribs. In 1900, the problem of sewage was largely resolved when Chicago reversed the flow of the river, a process that began with the construction and improvement of the Illinois and Michigan Canal and completed with the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal leading to the Illinois River which joins the Mississippi River. 1. 3. Chicago Fire After the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 destroyed a third of the city, including the entire central business district, Chicago experienced rapid rebuilding and growth. [4]During its rebuilding period, Chicago constructed the world’s first skyscraper in 1885, using steel-skeleton construction. Labor conflicts and unrest followed, including the Haymarket affair on May 4, 1886. Concern for social problems among Chicago’s lower classes led Jane Addams to be a co-founder of Hull House in 1889. Programs developed there became a model for the new field of social work. The city also invested in many large, well-landscaped municipal parks, which also included public sanitation facilities. [pic] 1. 4. 20th century The 1920s brought notoriety to Chicago as gangsters, including the notorious Al Capone, battled each other and law enforcement on the city streets during the Prohibition era. The 1920s also saw a major expansion in industry. The availability of jobs attracted African Americans from the South. Arriving in the tens of thousands during the Great Migration, the newcomers had an immense cultural impact. It was during this wave that Chicago became a center for jazz, with King Oliver leading the way. [5] In 1933, Mayor Anton Cermak was assassinated while in Miami with President Franklin D. Roosevelt. In the late summer of 1942, during World War II, Chicago held a practice black-out. According to one witness, â€Å"the sirens sounded, the lights went out while airplanes flew overhead to spot violators†. After about 30 minutes the beacon on top of the Palmolive Building came back on and the lights were quickly restored. [5] On December 2, 1942, physicist Enrico Fermi conducted the world’s first controlled nuclear reaction at the University of Chicago as part of the top-secret Manhattan Project. Mayor Richard J. Daley was elected in 1955, in the era of machine politics. Starting in the 1960s, many residents left the city for the suburbs, taking out the heart of many neighborhoods, leaving impoverished and disadvantaged citizens behind. Structural changes in industry caused heavy losses of jobs for lower skilled workers. In 1966 James Bevel, Martin Luther King Jr. , and Al Raby led the Chicago Open Housing Movement, which culminated in agreements between Mayor Richard J. Daley and the movement leaders. Two years later, the city hosted the tumultuous 1968 Democratic National Convention, which featured physical confrontations both inside and outside the convention hall, including full-scale riots, or in some cases police riots, in city streets. Major construction projects, including the Sears Tower (which in 1974 became the world’s tallest building), McCormick Place, and O’Hare Airport, were undertaken during Richard J. Daley’s tenure. When he died, Michael Anthony Bilandic was mayor for three years. His loss in a primary election has been attributed to the city’s inability to properly plow city streets during a heavy snowstorm. In 1979, Jane Byrne, the city’s first female mayor, was elected. She popularized the city as a movie location and tourist destination. You read "Hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh" in category "Papers" In 1983 Harold Washington became the first African American to be elected to the office of mayor, in one of the closest mayoral elections in Chicago. After Washington won the Democratic primary, racial motivations caused a few Democratic alderman and ward committeemen to back the Republican candidate Bernard Epton, who ran on the slogan Before it’s too late, a thinly veiled appeal to fear. [10] Washington’s term in office saw new attention given to poor and minority neighborhoods. His administration reduced the longtime dominance of city contracts and employment by ethnic whites. Washington died in office of a heart attack in 1987, shortly after being elected to a second term. Current mayor Richard M. Daley, son of the late Richard J. Daley, was elected in 1989. He has led many progressive changes to the city, including improving parks; creating incentives for sustainable development, including green roofs; and major new developments. Since the 1990s, the city has undergone a revitalization in which some lower class neighborhoods have been transformed as new middle class residents have settled in the city. In 2008, the city earned the title of â€Å"City of the Year† from GQ for contributions in architecture and literature, a renaissance in the world of politics and downtown’s starring role in the Batman movie The Dark Knight. 6] 2. Geography 2. 1. Topography Chicago is located in northeastern Illinois at the southwestern tip of Lake Michigan. It sits on the continental divide at the site of the Chicago Portage, connecting the Mississippi River and the Great Lakes watersheds. The city lies beside Lake Michigan, and two rivers — the Chicago River in downtown and the Calumet River in the industr ial far South Side — flow entirely or partially through Chicago. The Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal connects the Chicago River with the Des Plaines River, which runs to the west of the city. Chicago’s history and economy are closely tied to its proximity to Lake Michigan. While the Chicago River historically handled much of the region’s waterborne cargo, today’s huge lake freighters use the city’s far south Lake Calumet Harbor. The Lake also moderates Chicago’s climate, making it warmer in the winter and cooler in the summer. When Chicago was founded in the 1830s, most of the early building began around the mouth of the Chicago River, as can be seen on a map of the city’s original 58 blocks. [6] The overall grade of the city’s central, built-up reas, is relatively consistent with the natural flatness of its overall natural geography, generally exhibiting only slight differentiation otherwise. The average land elevation is 579 feet (176 m) above sea level. The lowest points are along the lake shore at 577 feet (176 m), while the highest point at 735 feet (224 m) is a landfill located in the Hegewisch community area on the c ity’s far south side. Lake Shore Drive runs adjacent to a large portion of Chicago’s lakefront. Parks along the lakeshore include Lincoln Park, Grant Park, Burnham Park and Jackson Park; 29 public beaches are found all along the shore. Near downtown, landfills extend into the Lake, providing space for the Jardine Water Purification Plant, Navy Pier, Northerly Island and the Museum Campus, Soldier Field, and large portions of the McCormick Place Convention Center. Most of the city’s high-rise commercial and residential buildings can be found within a few blocks of the Lake. Chicagoland is an informal name for the Chicago metro area, used primarily by copywriters, advertising agencies, and traffic reporters. There is no precise definition for the term â€Å"Chicagoland,† but it generally means â€Å"around Chicago† or relatively local. The Chicago Tribune, which coined the term, includes the city of Chicago, the rest of Cook County, eight nearby Illinois counties; Lake, McHenry, DuPage, Kane, Kendall, Grundy, Will and Kankakee, and three counties in Indiana; Lake, Porter, and LaPorte. [7] The Illinois Department of Tourism defines Chicagoland as Cook County without the city of Chicago, and only Lake, DuPage, Kane and Will counties. The Chicagoland Chamber of Commerce defines it as all of Cook, and DuPage, Kane, Lake, McHenry and Will counties. 2. 2. Climate The city lies within the humid continental climate zone, and experiences four distinct seasons. Summers are warm humid with average high temperatures of 80-84 °F (27-29 °C) and lows of 61-65  °F (16-19 °C). Winters are cold, snowy and windy with temperatures below freezing. Spring and Fall are mild with low humidity. According to the National Weather Service, Chicago’s highest official temperature reading of 107  °F (42  °C) was recorded on June 1, 1934. The lowest temperature of ? 27  °F (? 33  °C) was recorded on January 20, 1985. Along with long, hot dry spells in the summer, Chicago can suffer extreme winter cold spells. In the entire month of January 1977, the temperature did not rise above 31  °F (-0. 5  °C). The average temperature that month was around 10  °F (-12  °C). Chicago’s yearly precipitation averages about 34 inches (860 millimeters). Summer is typically the rainiest season, with short-lived rainfall and thunderstorms more common than prolonged rainy periods. [8] Winter precipitation tends to be more snow than rain. Chicago’s snowiest winter on record was that of 1978–79, with 89. 7 inches (228 cm) of snow in total. The winter of 2007-08, with more than 61 inches (155 cm) of snow, was the snowiest in nearly three decades, and the winter of 2008/2009 produced nearly 50 inches (127 cm). Average winter snowfall is normally around 38 inches (96. 52 cm). The highest one-day snowfall total in Chicago history was 18. 3 inches (46. 5 cm) on Jan. 3, 1999. Chicago’s highest one-day rainfall total was 6. 63 inches (168. 4 mm) on September 13, 2008. [8] The previous record of 6. 49 inches (164 mm) had been set on August 14, 1987. The record for yearly rainfall is 50. 6 inches set in 2008; 1983 was the wettest year before with 49. 35 inches. [8] 3. Cityscape. Architecture The outcome of the Great Chicago Fire led to the largest building boom in the history of the nation. Perhaps the most outstanding of these events was the relocation of many of the nation’s most prominent architects to the city from New England for construction of the 1893 World Columbian Exposition. In 1885, the first steel-fr amed high-rise building rose in Chicago ushering in the skyscraper era. [9] Today, Chicago’s skyline is among the world’s tallest. Downtown’s historic buildings include the Chicago Board of Trade Building in the Loop, with others along the lakefront and the Chicago River. Once first on the list of largest buildings in the world and still listed twentieth, the Merchandise Mart stands near the junction of the north and south river branches. Presently the three tallest in the city are the Sears Tower, the Aon Center (previously the Standard Oil Building), and the John Hancock Center. The city’s architecture includes lakefront high-rise residential towers, low-rise structures, and single-family homes. Industrialized areas such as the Indiana border, south of Midway Airport, and the banks of the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal are clustered. Future skyline plans entail the supertall Waterview Tower, Chicago Spire, and Trump International Hotel and Tower. The 60602 zip code was named by Forbes as the hottest zip code in the country with upscale buildings such as The Heritage at Millennium Park (130 N. Garland) leading the way for other buildings such at Waterview Tower, The Legacy and Momo. Other new skyscraper construction may be found directly south (South Loop) and north (River North) of the Loop. Multiple kinds and scales of houses, townhouses, condominiums and apartment buildings can be found in Chicago. Large swaths of Chicago’s residential areas away from the lake in the so-called â€Å"bungalow belt† are characterized by bungalows built from the early 20th century through the end of World War II. Chicago is also a prominent center of the Polish Cathedral style of church architecture. One of Chicago’s suburbs is Oak Park, home to the late Frank Lloyd Wright. 4. Culture and contemporary life 4. 1. Entertainment and performing arts Chicago’s theatre community spawned modern improvisational theatre. Two renowned comedy troupes emerged — The Second City and I. O. (formerly known as ImprovOlympic). Renowned Chicago theater companies include the Steppenwolf Theatre Company (on the city’s north side), the Goodman Theatre, and the Victory Gardens Theater. Chicago offers Broadway-style entertainment at theaters such as Ford Center for the Performing Arts Oriental Theatre, Bank of America Theatre, Cadillac Palace Theatre, Auditorium Building of Roosevelt University, and Drury Lane Theatre Water Tower Place. Polish language productions for Chicago’s large Polish speaking population can be seen at the historic Gateway Theatre in Jefferson Park. Since 1968, the Joseph Jefferson Awards are given annually to acknowledge excellence in theatre in the Chicago area. Classical music offerings include the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, recognized as one of the finest orchestras in the world,[10] which performs at Symphony Center. Also performing regularly at Symphony Center is the Chicago Sinfonietta, a more diverse and multicultural counterpart to the CSO. In the summer, many outdoor concerts are given in Grant Park and Millennium Park. Ravinia Park, located 25 miles (40 km) north of Chicago, is also a favorite destination for many Chicagoans, with performances occasionally given in Chicago locations such as the Harris Theater. The Civic Opera House is home to the Lyric Opera of Chicago. The Joffrey Ballet and Chicago Festival Ballet perform in various venues, including the Harris Theater in Millennium Park. Chicago is home to several other modern and jazz dance troupes, such as the Hubbard Street Dance Chicago. Other live music genre which are part of the city’s cultural heritage include Chicago blues, Chicago soul, jazz, and gospel. The city is the birthplace of house music and is the site of an influential hip-hop scene. In the 1980s, the city was a center for industrial, punk and new wave. This influence continued into the alternative rock of the 1990s. The city has been an epicenter for rave culture since the 1980s. A flourishing independent rock music culture brought forth Chicago indie. The city has also been spawning a critically acclaimed underground metal scene with various bands gaining national attention in the metal and hard rock world. Annual festivals feature various acts such as Lollapalooza, the Intonation Music Festival and Pitchfork Music Festival. . 2. Tourism Chicago attracted a combined 44. 2 million people in 2006 from around the nation and abroad. [4] Upscale shopping along the Magnificent Mile, thousands of restaurants, as well as Chicago’s eminent architecture, continue to draw tourists. The city is the United States’ third-largest convention destination. Most conventions ar e held at McCormick Place, just south of Soldier Field. The historic Chicago Cultural Center (1897), originally serving as the Chicago Public Library, now houses the city’s Visitor Information Center, galleries, and exhibit halls. The ceiling of Preston Bradley Hall includes a 38-foot (11 m) Tiffany glass dome. Millennium Park, initially slated to be unveiled at the turn of the 21st century, and delayed for several years, sits on a deck built over a portion of the former Illinois Central rail yard. The park includes the reflective Cloud Gate sculpture (known locally as â€Å"The Bean†). A Millennium Park restaurant outdoor transforms into an ice rink in the winter. Two tall glass sculptures make up the Crown Fountain. The fountain’s two towers display visual effects from LED images of Chicagoans’ faces, with water spouting from their lips. Frank Gehry’s detailed stainless steel band shell Pritzker Pavilion, hosts the classical Grant Park Music Festival concert series. Behind the pavilion’s stage is the Harris Theater for Music and Dance, an indoor venue for mid-sized performing arts companies, including Chicago Opera Theater and Music of the Baroque. In 1998, the city officially opened the Museum Campus, a 10-acre (4-ha) lakefront park surrounding three of the city’s main museums: the Adler Planetarium, the Field Museum of Natural History, and the Shedd Aquarium. The Museum Campus joins the southern section of Grant Park which includes the renowned Art Institute of Chicago. Buckingham Fountain anchors the downtown park along the lakefront. The Oriental Institute, part of the University of Chicago, has an extensive collection of ancient Egyptian and Near Eastern archaeological artifacts. Other museums and galleries in Chicago are the Chicago History Museum, DuSable Museum of African-American History, Museum of Contemporary Art, the Peggy Notebaert Nature Museum, the Polish Museum of America, Museum of Broadcast Communications and the Museum of Science and Industry. 4. 3. Parks When Chicago incorporated in 1837, it chose the motto â€Å"Urbs in Horto†, a Latin phrase which translates into English as â€Å"City in a Garden†. Today the Chicago Park District consists of 552 parks with over 7,300 acres (30 km? ) of municipal parkland as well as 33 sand beaches along Lake Michigan, nine museums, two world-class conservatories, 16 historic lagoons and 10 bird and wildlife gardens. Lincoln Park, the largest of these parks, has over 20 million visitors each year, making it second only to Central Park in New York City. [16] Nine lakefront harbors located within a number of parks along the lakefront render the Chicago Park District the nation’s largest municipal harbor system. In addition to ongoing beautification and renewal projects for existing parks, a number of new parks have been added in recent years such as Ping Tom Memorial Park, DuSable Park and most notably Millennium Park. The wealth of greenspace afforded by Chicago’s parks is further augmented by the Cook County Forest Preserves, a network of open spaces containing forest, prairie, wetland, streams, and lakes that are set aside as natural areas which lie along the city’s periphery, home to both the Chicago Botanic Garden and Brookfield Zoo. 4. 4. Sports Chicago was named the Best Sports City in the United States by The Sporting News in 1993 and 2006. The city is home to two Major League Baseball teams: the Chicago Cubs of the National League play on the city’s North Side, in Wrigley Field, while the Chicago White Sox of the American League play in U. S. Cellular Field on the city’s South Side. Chicago is the only city in North America that has had more than one Major League Baseball franchise every year since the American League began in 1900. The Chicago Bears, one of the two remaining charter members of the NFL, have won thirteen NFL Championships. The other remaining charter franchise also started out in Chicago, the Chicago Cardinals, now the Arizona Cardinals . The Bears play their home games at Soldier Field on Chicago’s lakefront. Due in large part to Michael Jordan, the Chicago Bulls of the NBA are one of the most recognized basketball teams in the world. With Jordan leading them, the Bulls took six NBA championships in eight seasons during the 1990s (only failing to do so in the two years of Jordan’s absence). The Chicago Blackhawks of the NHL, who began play in 1926 have won three Stanley Cups. The Blackhawks also hosted the 2008-2009 Winter Classic. Both the Bulls and Blackhawks play at the United Center on the Near West Side. The Chicago Fire soccer club are members of Major League Soccer. The Fire have won one league and four US Open Cups since their inaugural season in 1998. In 2006, the club moved to its current home, Toyota Park, in suburban Bridgeview after playing its first eight seasons downtown at Soldier Field and at Cardinal Stadium in Naperville. The club is now the third professional soccer team to call Chicago home, the first two being the Chicago Sting of the NASL (and later the indoor team of the MISL); and the Chicago Power of the NPSL-AISA. The Chicago Red Stars of Women’s Professional Soccer also play in Toyota Park in Bridgeview, Illinois. The Chicago Rush, of the Arena Football League, The Chicago Bandits of the NPF and the Chicago Wolves, of the AHL, also play in Chicago; they both play at the Allstate Arena. The Chicago Sky of the WNBA, began play in 2006. The Sky’s home arena is the UIC Pavilion. The Chicago Slaughter of the CIFL began in 2006 and play at the Sears Centre. The Chicago Storm began play in 2004 in the MISL until 2007 when they moved to the XSL. The Chicago Storm also play at the Sears Centre. The Chicago Marathon has been held every October since 1977. This event is one of five World Marathon Majors. [10] In 1994 the United States hosted a successful FIFA World Cup with games played at Soldier Field. Chicago was selected on April 14, 2007 to represent the United States internationally in the bidding for the 2016 Summer Olympics. [11] Chicago also hosted the 1959 Pan American Games, and Gay Games VII in 2006. Chicago was selected to host the 1904 Olympics, but they were transferred to St. Louis to coincide with the World’s Fair. 11] On June 4, 2008 The International Olympic Committee selected Chicago as one of four candidate cities for the 2016 games. Chicago is also the starting point for the Chicago Yacht Club Race to Mackinac, a 330-mile (530 km) offshore sailboat race held each July that is the longest annual freshwater sailboat race in the world. 2008 marks the 100th running of the â€Å"Mac. † At the collegiate level, Chicago and its suburb, Evanston, h ave two national athletic conferences, the Big East Conference with DePaul University, and the Big Ten Conference with Northwestern University in Evanston. 4. 5. Media The Chicago metropolitan area is the third-largest media market in North America (after New York City and Los Angeles). [12] Each of the big four (CBS, ABC, NBC, and FOX) United States television networks directly owns and operates a station in Chicago (WBBM, WLS, WMAQ, and WFLD, respectively). WGN-TV, which is owned by the Tribune Company, is carried (with some programming differences) as â€Å"WGN America† on cable nationwide and in parts of the Caribbean. The city is also the home of The Oprah Winfrey Show (on WLS) and Jerry Springer (on WMAQ), while Chicago Public Radio produces programs such as PRI’s This American Life and NPR’s Wait Wait†¦ Don’t Tell Me!. PBS on TV in Chicago can be seen on WTTW (producer of shows such as Sneak Previews, The Frugal Gourmet, Lamb Chop’s Play-Along, and The McLaughlin Group, just to name a few) and WYCC. There are two major daily newspapers published in Chicago: the Chicago Tribune and the Chicago Sun-Times, with the former having the larger circulation. There are also several regional and special-interest newspapers such as the Chicago Reader, the Daily Southtown, the Chicago Defender, the Chicago Sports Weekly, the Daily Herald, StreetWise, The Chicago Free Press and the Windy City Times. The city has pushed hard to make Chicago a filming-friendly location. After a long drought of interest from Hollywood movies, Spider-Man 2 filmed a scene in Chicago. Since then, progressively more movies have filmed in Chicago, most notably the massive blockbuster success The Dark Knight, which was a follow up to Batman Begins, which also shot in Chicago. 5. Economy Chicago has the third largest gross metropolitan product in the nation — approximately $440 billion according to 2007 estimates. The city has also been rated as having the most balanced economy in the United States, due to its high level of diversification. [35] Chicago was named the fourth most important business center in the world in the MasterCard Worldwide Centers of Commerce Index. Additionally, the Chicago metropolitan area recorded the greatest number of new or expanded corporate facilities in the United States for six of the past seven years. In 2008, Chicago placed 16th on the UBS list of the world’s richest cities. [13] Chicago is a major financial center with the second largest central business district in the U. S. The city is the headquarters of the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago (the Seventh District of the Federal Reserve). The city is also home to three major financial and futures exchanges, including the Chicago Stock Exchange, the Chicago Board Options Exchange (CBOE), and the Chicago Mercantile Exchange (the â€Å"Merc†), which includes the former Chicago Board of Trade (CBOT). Perhaps due to the influence of the Chicago school of economics, the city also has markets trading unusual contracts such as emissions (on the Chicago Climate Exchange) and equity style indices (on the US Futures Exchange). In addition to the exchanges, Chicago and the surrounding areas house many major brokerage firms and insurance companies, such as Allstate and Zurich North America. The city and its surrounding metropolitan area are home to the second largest labor pool in the United States with approximately 4. 25 million workers. [13] Manufacturing, printing, publishing and food processing also play major roles in the city’s economy. Several medical products and services companies are headquartered in the Chicago area, including Baxter International, Abbott Laboratories, and the Healthcare Financial Services division of General Electric. Moreover, the construction of the Illinois and Michigan Canal, which helped move goods from the Great Lakes south on the Mississippi River, and of the railroads in the 19th century made the city a major transportation center in the United States. In the 1840s, Chicago became a major grain port, and in the 1850s and 1860s Chicago’s pork and beef industry expanded. As the major meat companies grew in Chicago many, such as Armour and Company, created global enterprises. Though the meatpacking industry currently plays a lesser role in the city’s economy, Chicago continues to be a major transportation and distribution center. Late in the 19th Century, Chicago was part of the bicycle craze, as home to Western Wheel Company, which introduced stamping to the production process and significantly reduced costs,[12] while early in the 20th Century, the city was part of the automobile revolution, hosting the brass era car builder Bugmobile, which was founded there in 1907. Chicago is also a major convention destination. The city’s main convention center is McCormick Place. With its four interconnected buildings, it is the third largest convention center in the world. Chicago also ranks third in the U. S. (behind Las Vegas and Orlando) in number of conventions hosted annually. In addition, Chicago is home to eleven Fortune 500 companies, while the metropolitan area hosts an additional 21 Fortune 500 companies. The state of Illinois is home to 66 Fortune 1000 companies. Chicago also hosts 12 Fortune Global 500 companies and 17 Financial Times 500 companies. The city claims one Dow 30 company as well: aerospace giant Boeing, which moved its headquarters from Seattle to the Chicago Loop in 2001. 6. Demographics During its first century as a city, Chicago grew at a rate that ranked among the fastest growing in the world. Within the span of forty years, the city’s population grew from slightly under 30,000 to over 1 million by 1890. By the close of the 19th century, Chicago was the fifth largest city in the world,[14] and the largest of the cities that did not exist at the dawn of the century. Within fifty years of the Great Chicago Fire of 1871, the population had tripled to over 3 million. As of the 2000 census, there were 2,896,016 people, 1,061,928 households, and 632,909 families residing within Chicago. More than half the population of the state of Illinois lives in the Chicago metropolitan area. The population density of the city itself was 12,750. 3 people per square mile (4,923. 0/km? ), making it one of the nation’s most densely populated cities. There were 1,152,868 housing units at an average density of 5,075. 8 per square mile (1,959. 8/km? ). Of the 1,061,928 households, 28. 9% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 35. 1% were married couples living together, 18. 9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40. 4% were non-families. The median income for a household in the city was $38,625, and the median income for a family was $46,748. Males had a median income of $35,907 versus $30,536 for females. Below the poverty line are 19. 6% of the population and 16. 6% of the families. At the 2007 U. S. Census estimates, Chicago’s population was: 38. 9% White (30. 9% non-Hispanic-White), 35. 6% Black or African American, 0. 5% American Indian and Alaska Native, 5. 3% Asian, 0. 1% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 21. 3% some other race and 1. 6% two or more races. 28. 1% of the total population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 5]. The main ethnic groups in Chicago are African American, Irish, German, Italian, Mexican, English, Bulgarian, Greek, Chinese, Lithuanian, Polish, Serbian, Ukrainian and Puerto Rican. Many of Chicago’s politicians have come from this massive Irish population, including the current mayor, Richard M. Daley. Poles in Chicago constitute the largest Polish population out side of the Polish capital, Warsaw, making it one of the most important Polonia centers,[16] a fact that the city celebrates every Labor Day weekend at the Taste of Polonia Festival in Jefferson Park. The Chicago Metropolitan area is also a major center for those of Indian ancestry. 7. Law and government Chicago is the county seat of Cook County. The government of the City of Chicago is divided into executive and legislative branches. The Mayor of Chicago is the chief executive, elected by general election for a term of four years, with no term limits. The mayor appoints commissioners and other officials who oversee the various departments. In addition to the mayor, Chicago’s two other citywide elected officials are the clerk and the treasurer. The City Council is the legislative branch and is made up of 50 aldermen, one elected from each ward in the city. The council enacts local ordinances and approves the city budget. Government priorities and activities are established in a budget ordinance usually adopted each November. The council takes official action through the passage of ordinances and resolutions. During much of the last half of the 19th century, Chicago’s politics were dominated by a growing Democratic Party organization dominated by ethnic ward-heelers. During the 1880s and 1890s, Chicago had a powerful radical tradition with large and highly organized socialist, anarchist and labor organizations. For much of the 20th century, Chicago has been among the largest and most reliable Democratic strongholds in the United States, with Chicago’s Democratic vote the state of Illinois tends to be â€Å"solid blue† in presidential elections since 1992. The citizens of Chicago have not elected a Republican mayor since 1927, when William Thompson was voted into office. The strength of the party in the city is partly a consequence of Illinois state politics, where the Republicans have come to represent the rural and farm concerns while the Democrats support urban issues such as Chicago’s public school funding. Although Chicago includes less than 25% of the state’s population, eight of Illinois’ nineteen U. S. Representatives have part of the city in their districts. Former Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley’s mastery of machine politics preserved the Chicago Democratic Machine long after the demise of similar machines in other large U. S. cities. 15] During much of that time, the city administration found opposition mainly from a liberal â€Å"independent† faction of the Democratic Party. The independents finally gained control of city government in 1983 with the election of Harold Washington. Since 1989, Chicago has been under the leadership of Richard M. Daley, the son of Richard J. Daley. Because of the dominance of the Democratic Party in Chicago, the Democratic primary vote held in the spring is generally more significant than the general elections in November. 8. Education There are 680 public schools, 394 private schools, 83 colleges, and 88 libraries in Chicago proper. Chicago Public Schools (CPS), is the governing body of a district that contains over 600 public elementary and high schools citywide, including several selective-admission magnet schools. The school district, with an enrollment exceeding 400,000 students (2005 stat. ), ranks as third largest in the U. S. [52] Private schools in Chicago are largely run by religious groups. The two largest systems are run by Christian religious denominations, Roman Catholic and Lutheran, respectively. The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Chicago operates the city’s Roman Catholic schools, including Jesuit preparatory schools. Some of the more prominent examples of schools run by the Archdiocese are: Brother Rice High School, Loyola Academy, St. Ignatius College Prep, St. Scholastica Academy, Mount Carmel High School, Mother McAuley Liberal Arts High School, Marist High School, and St. Patrick High School and Resurrection High School. In addition to Chicago’s network of 32 Lutheran Schools,[16] Chicago also has private schools run by other denominations and faiths such as Ida Crown Jewish Academy in West Rogers Park, and the Fasman Yeshiva High School in Skokie, a nearby suburb. There are also a number of private schools run in a completely secular educational environment such as: Latin School, University of Chicago Laboratory Schools in Hyde Park, Francis W. Parker School, Chicago City Day School in Lake View, and Morgan Park Academy. Chicago is also home of the prestigious Chicago Academy for the Arts, an arts high school focused on 6 different categories of the arts, Media Arts, Visual Arts, Music, Dance, Musical Theatre and Theatre. It has been heralded as the best arts high school in the country. Children commute from as far away as South Bend, Indiana every day to attend classes. Since the 1890s, Chicago has been a world center in higher education and research. Six universities in or immediately adjoining the city, Northwestern University, the University of Chicago, DePaul University, University of Illinois Chicago, Loyola University Chicago, and the Illinois Institute of Technology, are among the top echelon of doctorate-granting research universities. Northwestern University, established in 1851, is a nonsectarian, private, research university located in the adjacent northern suburb of Evanston. The University maintains the top–rated Kellogg Graduate School of Management, the Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences, the McCormick School of Engineering, the Bienen School of Music, and the Medill School of Journalism. Northwestern also has a downtown Chicago campus, with the Feinberg School of Medicine and School of Law, both being located in the city’s Streeterville neighborhood. Northwestern is a member of the Big Ten Athletic Conference. The University of Chicago, established in 1891, is a nonsectarian, private, research university located in Hyde Park on the city’s South Side. The university has had 82 Nobel Prize laureates among its faculty and alumni, the highest of any university in the world. Academic programs at the University of Chicago have initiated entire schools of thought named after Chicago, most notably the Chicago School of Economics. The university also maintains the Pritzker School of Medicine, the University of Chicago Law School, and the Booth School of Business. The University of Illinois at Chicago, a nationally ranked public research institution, is the largest university within the city. [54] UIC boasts the nation’s largest medical school. 16] State funded universities in Chicago (besides UIC) include Chicago State University and Northeastern Illinois University. The city also has a large community college system known as the City Colleges of Chicago. Prominent Catholic universities in Chicago include Loyola University and DePaul University. Loyola, established in 1870 as Saint Ignatius College, has campuses on city’s No rth Side as well as downtown, and a Medical Center in the West suburban Maywood, is the largest Jesuit university in the country while DePaul, a Big East Conference university is the largest Catholic university in the U. S. Loyola University Chicago is a private Jesuit university. The Illinois Institute of Technology is a private Ph. D. -granting technological university. The main campus is established in Bronzeville, and is home to renowned engineering and architecture programs. The university was host to world-famous modern architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe for many years. IIT also maintains a formal academic and research relationship with the Argonne National Laboratory. The IIT Institute of Design is located downtown, and the Stuart School of Business and Chicago-Kent College of Law are located within the city’s financial district. IIT shares it’s main campus with the VanderCook College of Music, the only independent college in the country focusing exclusively on the training of music educators, and Shimer College, a private liberal arts college which follows the Great Books program. Lake Forest College is Chicago’s national liberal arts college. North Park University is located in Chicago’s Albany park neighborhood, it enrolls a little over 3,000 students and has been listed on US News’ college review as one of the best universities in the Midwest. References: 1. Annual Estimates of the Population of Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2007 (CBSA-EST2007-01)†: www. census. gov/popest/metro/CBSA-est2007-annual. html 2. â€Å"Population in Metropolitan and Micropolitan Statistical Areas Ranked by 2000 Population for the United States and Puerto Rico†: www. census. gov/population/cen2000/phc-t29/tab03a. csv 3. â€Å"Chicago in the Wor ld City Network†. Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network Loughborough University: http://www. lboro. ac. uk/gawc/projects/projec16. htm 4. Choose Chicago – the official visitors site for Chicago | Industry Statistics 5. Swenson, John F. â€Å"Chicagoua/Chicago: The Origin, Meaning, and Etymology of a Place Name. † Illinois Historical Journal 84. 4 (Winter 1991): 235–248 6. McCafferty, Michael. kDisc: â€Å"Chicago† Etymology. LINGUIST list posting, Dec. y21, 2001 7. Bruegmann, Robert (2004–2005). Built Environment of the Chicago Region. Encyclopedia of Chicago (online version). 8. www. enjoyillinois. com 9. Chicago Seasonal Temperature and Precipitation Rankings (11/25/2005) 10. â€Å"Best Sports Cities 2006: Who, where and how†: http://www. sportingnews. com/yourturn/viewtopic. hp? t=113586 11. â€Å"City Mayors: World’s richest cities†: www. citymayors. com/economics/richest_cities. html 12. Norcliffe, Glen. The Ride to Modernity: The Bicycle in Canada, 1869-1900 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001), p. 107. 13. Schneirov, Richard (April 1, 1998). Labor a nd Urban Politics. University of Illinois Press. pp. 173–174. 14. Montejano, David, ed (January 1, 1998). Chicano Politics and Society in the Late Twentieth Century. University of Texas Press. pp. 33–34. 15. Chicago falls to 3rd in U. S. convention industry (4/26/2006). Crain’s Chicago Business. 16. http://glores. ru/wiki/en. wikipedia. org How to cite Hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh, Papers

Drug American Dental Association

Question: Discuss about theDrugfor American Dental Association. Answer: Celecoxib Molecular formula is C17H14F3N3O2S (1). It can 1 hydrogen bond and accepts 7 H2 Rotatable bond count is 3 and covalently-bonded unit count is 1 (1). Celecoxib selectively inhibits cyclo-oxygenase-2 activity (1). Black, tarry or bloody stools, abdominal pain, chest, left arm or jaw pain, vomit that looks like coffee grounds, shortness of breath, weakness and unusual sweating are side effects (2). Etoricoxib Molecular formula is C18H15CIN2O2S (1). It has no hydrogen bond donor but accepts 4 hydrogen bonds. Rotatable bond count is 3 and covalently-bonded unit count is 1 (1). Etoricoxib is a COX-2 selective inhibitor (1). Indigestion, abdominal pain, constipation, weakness, diarrhoea, high BP, swelling and flue like symptoms are common side effects (2). Meloxicam Molecular formula is C14H13N3O4S2 (1). Hydrogen bond donor and acceptor counts are 2 and 7 respectively. Rotatable bond count is 2 and covalently-bonded unit count is 1 (1). Meloxicam preferentially inhibits the activity of COX-II (1). Chest pain, shortness of breath, weakness, slurred speech, swelling or rapid weight gain, problems with balance and vision, black, bloody or tarry stools and vomit that looks like coffee grounds or coughing up blood are some serious side effects (2). These drugs has some common side effects as their composition is nearly same. Swelling can occur due to allergic interactions. The most significant renal side effect of these non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs is analgesic nephropathy. The potential mechanism for analgesic nephropathy is the inhibition of renal prostaglandin synthesis. They have very few different side effects because of their slightly dissimilar compositions. References The PubChem Project [Internet]. Pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. 2016 Aminoshariae A, Kulild JC, Donaldson M. Short-term use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and adverse effects: An updated systematic review. The Journal of the American Dental Association. 2016 Feb 29; 147(2):98-110.

Accounting-System in Switzerland essays

Accounting-System in Switzerland essays Brainstorming: Accounting of Switzerland 4 We have chosen the Switzerland for several reasons. First of all Swiss accounting is neither examined in our textbook nor is it one of our native countries. This was one of the requirements of the exercise. Then we thought that Switzerland is interesting because of its cultural background. There are four languages spoken in the Switzerland, which is enclosed by 5 neighbours (Germany, France, Italy, Liechtenstein, Austria). The Swiss adopted the language of Germany, France and Italy and that led us to the assumption that the Swiss accounting probably might be influenced by at least one or even more of its neighbours. Another reason choosing Switzerland was the well-known banking secrecy and the importance of privacy and secrecy in general. To get informations about Swiss accounting we looked at the articles in newspapers, books, magazines and the Internet. Interestingly it seemed that even the professionals wrangle with the challenges of switching the accounting system. Because Switzerland isnt a member of the European Union it was interesting to examine to which extent the EU policy in terms of accounting influences Swiss accounting. Brainstorming: Accounting of Switzerland Switzerland has only very few natural resources and a restricted surface area (~ 41 million km ², 60% of the surface is alpine area) (source: derweg.org/laender/schweiz/schweieinf.htm). Foreign trade is essential for its wealth. The total population of about 7,200,000 and - associated with that - a relatively small domestic market is another factor which forced Swiss manufacturers to look for cross border trade. They need foreign markets in order to make investment in research and development worthwhile. The constitution of Switzerland was published in 1848 and guarantees freedom of the press and settlement, religious and association liberty. Paragon for the swiss institution was the institut...

Free Essays on Till Death Do Us Part

How would you characterize Micah and Rachel’s marriage? What factors can you recognize that may contribute to the quality of their relationship in later adulthood? Although it is quite difficult to characterize a marriage that spanned over 45yrs, based on a short synopsis, Micah and Rachel’s marriage could be characterized as a â€Å"Successful† one. In short, it showed qualities of Strength, Trust/Unity, Devotion and Communication. One can begin to make some assumptions about their relationship based on the Lifespan perspective â€Å"which analyzes the change within people from conception to deathâ€Å" (Byrne, 2004, p3). One example of a normative event in life is the process of aging. If it weren’t for their age/stage, commonly termed later adulthood, Micah and Rachel would not be discussing death nor would they have been able to come to terms with the realities in dealing with death. The stroke has caused them to reevaluate the control they have over their lives. Abraham Maslow’s (1954) humanistic perspective explains that a person’s perception of self is in fact, their reality. (as cited in Byrne, 2004 ). Thus, Micah and Rachel’s goal to be well prepared for end of life issues motivated them to move forward and proceed with certain decisions. Rarely is this common amongst cohorts of younger generations. It is in dealing with Micah’s stroke, a non-normative event in their lives, are the qualities of their marriage made apparent Trust/Unity- With this, it can be assumed that the relationship has grown into a sort of team and is a prime example of their unity in their decision making. The fact that they were able to make decisions together rather than independently regarding the party, the funeral arrangements, and different ways of spending time together, shows the interdependence between the two. The use of the word ‘they’ boldly impacts the reader. Strength- the fact that they were able to make firm stands about their... Free Essays on Till Death Do Us Part Free Essays on Till Death Do Us Part How would you characterize Micah and Rachel’s marriage? What factors can you recognize that may contribute to the quality of their relationship in later adulthood? Although it is quite difficult to characterize a marriage that spanned over 45yrs, based on a short synopsis, Micah and Rachel’s marriage could be characterized as a â€Å"Successful† one. In short, it showed qualities of Strength, Trust/Unity, Devotion and Communication. One can begin to make some assumptions about their relationship based on the Lifespan perspective â€Å"which analyzes the change within people from conception to deathâ€Å" (Byrne, 2004, p3). One example of a normative event in life is the process of aging. If it weren’t for their age/stage, commonly termed later adulthood, Micah and Rachel would not be discussing death nor would they have been able to come to terms with the realities in dealing with death. The stroke has caused them to reevaluate the control they have over their lives. Abraham Maslow’s (1954) humanistic perspective explains that a person’s perception of self is in fact, their reality. (as cited in Byrne, 2004 ). Thus, Micah and Rachel’s goal to be well prepared for end of life issues motivated them to move forward and proceed with certain decisions. Rarely is this common amongst cohorts of younger generations. It is in dealing with Micah’s stroke, a non-normative event in their lives, are the qualities of their marriage made apparent Trust/Unity- With this, it can be assumed that the relationship has grown into a sort of team and is a prime example of their unity in their decision making. The fact that they were able to make decisions together rather than independently regarding the party, the funeral arrangements, and different ways of spending time together, shows the interdependence between the two. The use of the word ‘they’ boldly impacts the reader. Strength- the fact that they were able to make firm stands about their...

Ethical eaasy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ethical eaasy - Essay Example The textile materials treated by these chemicals have been banned in the markets in UK and US and so the organization resorts to selling its stock to the developing markets where there is no such legislation. The ethical dilemma in this problem The management of the organization had to make a decision between certain courses of action. There was an option of disposing the products that have been considered not fit for use and manufacture those that are required in the US and UK markets. There is also an option of looking for markets for the products in other regions that have no such regulations. The decision-making in the above case is bound by certain significant constraints. The initial problem that had ethical implications here is that the organization had already produced stock that was treated with carcinogenic agent. The organization did not want to run at a loss by disposing these products. The operations of the organization are also governed by the local, regional, and inter national regulations and a ban on such products in some countries will apply to this organization. Besides, there is also a need to consider the adverse effects of the products that led to its ban in these developed markets and whether it is ethical to introduce into the underdeveloped markets faulty products that have been rejected in the developed markets. ... It was then regarded unethical for a business organization to involve in the well-being of the society. In 1984, Edward Freeman proposed the Stakeholder theory that the objective of business is not only to maximize the shareholders’ profits but also to serve the interests of all the stakeholders of the organization (Crane & Matten, 2007, p.57). Stakeholders include all those parties influencing or affected by the decisions and operations of the organization and so the society is one such stakeholder. In solving such ethical dilemmas, we need to refer to the ethical theories that had been developed in moral philosophies like virtue theory (Aristotle), utilitarianism (Bentham), Immanuel Kant’s Universal law, and the Religious teachings among the other theories. The utilitarian approach will consider the consequences that a given decision will have on all the stakeholders of the organization including the shareholders (Petrick & Quinn, 1997, p.48). The products have been f ound to be contaminated with agents causing cancer. Selling these products to the consumers in the developing market is equivalent to exposing the consumers to cancerous agents. The overall costs to be incurred in managing the resulting cancer are unpredictably high and will be a threat to the economy. The developing markets may also not afford the same prices forcing the organization to lower its product prices thereby reducing the profits. Besides, a long-term effect will also be seen in its reputation in the emerging market should it be later known that the products were not fit. The organization will soon lose its position even in the emerging markets. Thus, the

Buddhist Temples As Educational Centers For Spiritual Quest Essay

Buddhist Temples As Educational Centers For Spiritual Quest - Essay Example Buddhism is a choice religion for this, as it emphasises meditation, contemplation of nature, and non-traditional thinking. To understand how Buddhist temples can become educational centres for this kind of spiritual journey, one must first understand the nature of Spiritual quests and Buddhist faith, before looking again at the issue of questing and education. Spiritual quests have been an essential part of religious experience for most of recorded history. From shamanistic vision quests to the separations of Religious leaders, the spiritual quest is the path to enlightenment. These journeys often involve great challenges, difficulties or impossible tasks to be performed. Mythologies often depict heroes going on long journeys, and overcoming terrible odds in order to obtain valuable items, or important knowledge. The Scandinavian tale of Odin hanging from the world tree in order to obtain knowledge for human kind is one example of a spiritual quest. Often originating in personal cat astrophe, the spiritual quest seeks to bridge the divide between possible and impossible worlds. The seeker isolates him or herself from general society, and puts himself through an ordeal. Passing through that experience gives the seeker enlightenment, and they can then return to their society with the gifts that the quest has brought out and developed within them. In modern western society, the religious quest does not seem to be so important to us. Many people do not undertake these journeys - jobs, families and other ties mean that it would be extremely difficult to isolate yourself from the rest of society for long periods of time. In the present day, these quests are generally undertaken in less strenuous circumstances. Anyone wishing to perform an actual quest or journey can go on vacations to spiritual places, or join quest expeditions which Combine sightseeing with meditation, Yoga and other lessons in self-discovery and self empowerment (Andrews) Even if modern Western societies have adapted the spiritual practices of the past, then this does not mean that they are any less valid or challenging. In recent years, the spiritual quest has been compared with the scientific questioning of the world: The scientific quest is to discover the order in the external world of space, time energy and matter. The spiritual quest is to discover order in our consciousness. (Krishna) Krishna also emphasises the importance of personal experience in spiritual seeking. "In the spiritual quest, knowledge is not helpful" (Krishna). What is needed is an insight into the truth, the same insight which the spiritual leader once had: Buddha's student has to observe all over again and rediscover what the Buddha discovered, in order to come upon that order in his own consciousness. One simply cannot learn it like knowledge. (Krishna) Spiritual quests demand that the seeker not only know the works of the leader, but also attempt to go through the same journey than Buddha, Christ, Krishna, Odin, or any other religious leaders. In this sense, spiritual questing can bring about a greater understanding of the seeker's faith, and give true meaning to the texts of religious traditions. 2)Buddhism Buddhism is not necessarily what one would expect from a religion. Instead of teaching salvation though submission to a supernatural entity, Buddhist teachings focus upon the mind as the way to spirituality and understanding. While the Buddha is venerated as a god or gods might be in other religion, it is also true that he is seen as a

Treatment of Homosexuality in Restoration and Enlightenment

Treatment of Homosexuality in Restoration and Enlightenment Homosexuality and the Problem of Identification in Restoration and Enlightenment England Restoration and Enlightenment England undeniably inherited, and to a large extent carried on the social, religious, and legal prejudices, or restrictions towards homosexual men that already existed for many centuries. The pronounced and extensive feelings against homosexuality in England which could be regarded as homophobic, as else where were strongly related to Christian theology and its strong influence upon prevailing social attitudes. There are several outright and clear condemnations of homosexuality in both the Old and New Testaments that influenced Christian theology to refute homosexuality as a deeply sinful and immoral act.[1] Outside of Judeo- Christian theology and ideology, homosexuality had not always been condemned or morally and socially vilified. Indeed in classical Greece and Rome being openly homosexual seemingly left men without detrimental social, religious, or legal consequences, which meant that few men had bothered to cover up their homosexual identities, fee lings, activities, and lifestyles. All that had changed once Christianity had become the dominant religion throughout Europe and taught that homosexuality was abnormal and sinful behaviour, and led to actions which were morally indefensible.[2] The Renaissance had rekindled interest in classical Greek and Roman art, literature, and sculpture, which in parts mentioned homosexuality as a normal and un-sinful part of everyday life. An unintended by product of the Renaissance had been the realisation that male homosexuality had not always been socially, or religiously taboo, and that it had not therefore been illegal in classical Greece or Rome. These earlier societies had not held homosexual men in disdain or made them social outcasts’ yet they were supposed to be immoral and degenerate compared to Christian societies. The realisation that only Judeo-Christian societies were so predominantly homophobic provided an impetus for homosexual men to alter their societies by arguing th at they were free to chose how they lived their lives and were not actually morally depraved. The initial moves to allow homosexual men to live openly started in Southern Europe before having an impact in Renaissance and Enlightenment England.[3] Arguably the Reformation disrupted the liberalising effects of the Renaissance, yet would eventually lead to increased levels of secularisation, and to the more liberal academic, social, and scientific attitudes of the Enlightenment. The more immediate consequences of the Reformation was increased attempts to rid Western European societies of false theology and cleanse it of immorality such as homosexuality, although the resulting conflicts between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism received the most attention amongst contemporaries and historians alike.[4] In England the onset of the Reformation had not altered the difficult situations that homosexual men faced if they wished to live their lives openly. That was due to the Protestants whether within the Church of England or the non-conformists outside of it being as opposed to male homosexuality as the Roman Catholic Church had always been. For the churches, homosexual thoughts or desires were just as sinful as actually performing homosexual acts. However if homosexual men refrained from acting upon their desires they would at least escape earthly punishment for their sins, which would be judged by God on their Judgement Day. Homosexual men either had to hide their sexual preferences or deny them completely. For they had virtually no alternative to concealing their orientation or gender identifications, and leading clandestine private lives. Hiding sexual orientation could make all the difference between been socially and economically successful or been disgraced, and possibly executed. Rumours of being homosexual could prove to be ruinous whether such allegations were proven or not. If actual homosexual acts could be proved to have taken place beyond doubt in an English Crown Court it would be fatal to those convicted. The high risks involved in leading a homosexual life even in secret helps to explain the lack of evidence that homosexual men left behind about themselves, as leaving information in writing or talking to the wrong people could leave to being convicted and then executed.[5] The concealment of homosexual identification was almost universally considered to be essential in England prior to the Restoration and Enlightenment eras, and remained highly important throughout those times. For men that held powerful social, economic, political, and religious positions being publicly identified or just rumoured to be a homosexual could prove to be disastrous for the maintenance of their position. Such rumours could reach the top of the political, social, and religious orders. During the 1590s until his death, even the Archbishop of Canterbury, John Whitgift came under suspicion of being sexually involved with another man. Whitgift was lucky enough to maintain the confidence of Elizabeth I as well as James I and therefore was not disgraced or removed from his post. Clergy had to be above suspicion of immoral sexual conduct whether homosexual or heterosexual in nature. The fact that England as a Protestant country allowed clerical marriage meant that the clergy could gratify heterosexual needs through marriage, whilst homosexual clergy if they existed had to preach the teachings of a religion that despised their sexuality.[6] The higher position a man held the greater the effort he would have put into hiding his homosexual orientation and identification. For instance, in the 14th century Edward II’s known homosexuality, when combined with his political ineptness contributed to his removal from the throne, and his subsequent murder. Kings were expected to be more masculine than any other men within society are, as they were expected to lead their countries during wartime, for kings to be suspected or known to be homosexual was detrimental for their chances of reigning over their countries successfully. Nearer to the Restoration and Enlightenment eras, the Duke of Buckingham was widely believed to have become the most influential and powerful royal favourite, not to mention the chief minister via his rumoured homosexual relationship with James I. Buckingham managed to form a similarly close relationship with Charles I, who seemed oblivious to the Duke’s unpopularity and incompetence. Rumours o f homosexuality did not damage Buckingham as much as his ineptness, yet they did not help improve his popularity either.[7] For homosexual men in Restoration and Enlightenment England, their social, political, and religious exclusion if their sexual orientation became public knowledge was attributable to the way in which homosexuality was regarded as being tantamount to sodomy by a majority of the heterosexual population. Sodomy was deemed to be as serious a sin as heresy and witchcraft, as the definition of sodomy incorporated all sexually deviant acts.[8] In earlier periods, males caught committing homosexual acts were usually trialed and punished by Church courts. The law was changed in 1534 in order for people accused of buggery to be trialed by Crown courts. The legislation of 1534 made it even more dangerous for male homosexuals to be known as being sexually active, or even to have their orientation known. The maximum punishment for any man caught and convicted for this crime was execution. Thus making buggery a crime punishable by death, in line with the sentences for heresy and witchcraft. The onl y difference was that the practice of executing heretics and alleged witches had gone by the end of the Enlightenment era, whereas the carrying out of homosexual activities was still a capital offence until 1861 and a crime until the 1960s[9]. Immediately prior to the Restoration period had been the Commonwealth, which had attempted to rigorously enforce all moral and religious values to meet with its fundamentalist Protestant ideology, including all heterosexual and homosexual sex outside of marriage. Whilst the Puritanical regime inspired by Oliver Cromwell had intended to cleanse the whole of Britain of its sins, it failed. During the Commonwealth period heterosexual adulterers as well as respectable Anglicans had to lead clandestine existences just like homosexuals and Roman Catholics had done for many decades.[10] Charles II’s return from exile ushered in the era of the Restoration, which brought a relaxation of the draconian moral codes of the Commonwealth, especially in the Royal Court. Despite his own immoral behaviour, Charles II only went as far as wanting religious toleration rather than officially supporting a relaxation of moral and sexual standards of behaviour. Even had Charles wished to improve the l egal position of homosexual men he would have not been prepared to face public and Parliamentary opposition to such plans.[11] Whilst the Restoration may have meant a more relaxed moral attitude at the Royal Court, there was no change in the legal position of men caught performing homosexual acts.[12] Concealment of homosexual identification or the protection of men in high social and religious positions was the best way to stay clear of prosecution and ultimately execution.[13] Living in towns and cities in general and in London in particular improved the chances of homosexual men not being caught, and leading a more fulfilling existence.[14] Homosexual men to an overwhelming extent publicly appeared to fit in with the gender role models during the Restoration and Enlightenment eras in England. As not conforming to conventional gender role models would have revealed their identity as homosexual men, many therefore decided to cover up their true identity to avoid persecution and their own personal disgrace. Homosexual men therefore, had to perform the gender roles expected of heterosexual men, such as being husbands, fathers and acting as heads of their households. Getting married and having children was the best means of concealing homosexual identification and removing suspicions of any sexual wrongdoing or immorality. Men of all social, economic and religious status were homosexuals, yet the higher their status the more they had to lose by revealing their sexual orientation. Self-preservation was presumably a greater motivation than self-expression or self-fulfilment. Although it must have made countless numbers of homo sexual men in Restoration and Enlightenment England the Reformation had weakened the hold of Christianity over society unknown to anybody at that time. The main long-term consequence of Protestantism was to increase the level of secularisation in England, although other social values reinforced prejudices towards homosexual men.[15] The Enlightenment continued the process of secularisation started by the Renaissance and only delayed by the Reformation, which slowly made English social and genders values more liberal and less repressive.[16] In many respects social prejudices against homosexual men outlasted the religious reasons for homosexuality being illegal in England in the first place. The fear of sodomy as an unnatural form of sexual behaviour persisted even as English society became increasingly secularised.[17] The treatment of homosexual men in Restoration and Enlightenment England was not the same throughout the country. London was a city in which homosexual men could attempt to be more open about their sexual orientation and worry less about fulfilling expected gender roles. As one of the biggest cities in the world, London was place in which homosexual men had an increased level of opportunities to be true to themselves, rather than outwardly conform to social and religious norms with regard to sexual conduct. Homosexual men that remained publicly unknown had to carry on living up to widespread masculine stereotypes.[18] These comments have to be qualified, as although London was a cosmopolitan centre where it was possible to lead different lifestyles that differed from the Christian and heterosexual norm. London was also the part of England in which the letter of the law could be enforced most vigorously, as it was the seat of government and Courts and magistrates would not want to be seen as unable to tackle criminal and immoral activities. As individuals homosexuals may have been able to lead homosexual lives with the protection of people in high places. However, at the end of the day it still remained sensible for homosexual men to hide their orientation as the legislation that could result in their conviction and execution remained upon the statute books.[19] For the majority of homosexual men in Restoration and Enlightenment England the opportunities to be readily identifiable as homosexuals were strictly limited and even when those chances were available it remained dangerous to take them. Some careers such as acting or singing gave a few homosexual men the chance to appear less masculine in public without raising undue suspicions of their sexual orientation. The majority of homosexual men were in the situation where they had to perform the social, economic, religious, or political functions that their position at birth had put them into. The majority of so cial, political, religious, and economic positions in Restoration and Enlightenment meant that all men had to perform their tasks in masculine ways. [20] Therefore, it could be concluded that the circumstances of the times made it very difficult for homosexual men to clearly allow themselves to be identified as such by their contemporaries in Restoration and Enlightenment England. It has also made it harder for modern historians to qualify and quantify the number and the experiences of homosexual men during that period. As was explored and evaluated above there were various reasons for homosexual men to conceal their sexual orientation from becoming general public knowledge, and to carry out any homosexual activities in secret, if at all. The overwhelmingly Christian nature of England before, during, and after the Restoration and Enlightenment eras had a very strong upon how homosexual men had to hide their sexual preferences from English society as a whole. Before the Reformation, the Roman Catholic Church had wide acceptance of its theology and opinions with regard to male homosexuality. The Roman Catholic Church had taught that all male homosexual activities should be regarded as deadly sins, which stemmed from all homosexual men having morally deviant thoughts that inevitably led to behaviour which needed to be severely punished, even to the point of executing homosexual men. Basically, Christian ideology was opposed to homosexuality on the grounds that it was an intolerable sin, just like heresy and witchcraft, which needed to be eradicated. The Reformation did not change the Christian perspective that male homosexuals should be punished as and when they were caught performing homosexual acts. Indeed the legislation that allowed the English Crown Courts to prosecute and execute people convicted of buggery was passed by the Reformation Parliament that enacted the break away of the English Church from the Papacy. The knowledge that being caught performing homosexual acts would result in execution meant that all men that performed such acts by and large did so in complete secrecy to avoid capital punishment. T he need for self preservation meant that the vast majority of homosexual men concealed their identities to stay alive and free, with the options to carry out homosexual activities in secret, or abstain from meeting other men altogether. To remain successfully hidden from people that might have them prosecuted the majority of homosexual men would chose not to leave written documentary evidence of their sexual activities or their feelings towards other men, as such material could easily have led to their conviction and subsequent execution. Homosexual men could have been from any social and economic background, as homosexuality seems to occur naturally within some men. After all it would hardly have been nurtured within Restoration and Enlightenment societies in England that overwhelmingly regarded homosexuality as being wrong and unnatural. Only limited numbers of homosexual men felt save enough not to hide their orientation, living in London, or having rich and powerful protectors w ere the factors that might allow some degree of openness. Bibliography Ashley M, (2002) A brief history of British Kings Queens, Robinson, London Betteridge T, (2002) Sodomy in Early Modern Europe, Manchester University Press, Manchester Fernandez-Arnesto, F Wilson, D (1996) Reformation Christianity and the World 1500-2000, Bantam Press, London Gardiner Wenborn (1995) The History Today Companion to British History, Collins and Brown Ltd, London Lenman, (2004) Chamber’s Dictionary of World History, Chambers, Edinburgh MacCulloch D, Reformation – Europe’s House Divided (2004) Penguin Books, London Schama, S (2001) A History of Britain The British Wars 1603-1776, BBC Worldwide, London 1 Footnotes [1] MacCulloch, 2004 p. 620 [2] MacCulloch, 2004 p. 620 [3] Betteridge, 2002 pp. 71 – 74 [4] Roberts, 1996 p. 235 [5] MacCulloch, 2004 p. 209 [6] MacCulloch, 2004 p. 209 [7] Betteridge, 2002 p. 46 [8] MacCulloch, 2004, p.622 [9] Gardiner Wenborn, 1995, p.388 [10] Schama, 2001, p.235 [11] Ashley, 2002, p.320 [12] Gardiner Wenborn, 1995, p.646 [13] Betteridge, 2002, pp.71-74 [14] MacCulloch, 2004, p.620 [15] Fernandez-Armesto Wilson, 1996, p.290 [16] Lenman, 2004, p.264 [17] Gardiner Wenborn, 1995, p.388 [18] Betteridge, 2002, pp. 71-74 [19] MacCulloch, 2004, p.622 [20] Betteridge, 2002 pp. 71-74